History of Sumo

Roots in Myth, Ritual, and Early Japanese Society

Shinto Origins and Ceremonial Combat

Sumo’s earliest known manifestations are deeply entwined with the indigenous Shinto religion of Japan. Before becoming codified as a martial tradition or spectator sport, sumo functioned primarily as a sacred rite. Ceremonial wrestling was performed at Shinto shrines to honor the kami (deities or spirits) and to secure bountiful harvests. These ritual bouts were not competitive in the modern sense but formed part of the broader agricultural and cosmological cycle, especially during festivals such as the Niinamesai (new harvest ceremony).

A foundational myth speaks of the god Takemikazuchi, who wrestled with the earthly spirit Takeminakata to determine dominion over the land. This myth, recorded in the Kojiki (712) and Nihon Shoki (720), suggests that sumo was symbolically tied to the legitimacy of imperial authority and the divine ancestry of the Japanese nation. As such, early sumo was less a martial discipline than a liturgical gesture – a dialogue between the earthly and spiritual realms.

Notably:

• Ritual sumo (shinji-zumō) was a central part of shrine-based festivals well into the Nara period.
• Some shrines, such as Kamigamo Shrine in Kyoto, continue these ceremonial matches to this day.
• The stomp (shiko) used to purify the ring has religious roots in these ancient rituals.

Early Appearances in Chronicles and Court Life

Historical references to sumo emerge in the Nihon Shoki, where a wrestling match from 23 BCE is described between the strongman Nomi no Sukune and Taimano Kehaya, reportedly commissioned by Emperor Suinin. This episode, though likely legendary, marks the first named sumo participants in recorded Japanese history. Nomi is often revered as the ancestral founder of sumo, and the episode emphasizes the link between physical prowess and imperial favor.

During the Kofun period (3rd–6th century), sumo began to shift from a purely sacred ritual to a form of physical contest used to demonstrate martial skill. Court records suggest that bouts were held at imperial gatherings, especially during seasonal festivals such as the Sechie, which featured competitive wrestling among the kugyo (aristocracy) and their retainers.

Key developments:

• Sumo as court entertainment, not yet standardized or with fixed rules.
• Matches were sometimes brutal and without weight divisions or time limits.
• Wrestlers were often drawn from warrior clans, blurring the line between ritual and combat.

Clan Patronage and Regional Variations

By the Asuka and early Nara periods (6th–8th century), Japan’s evolving political structure influenced the character of sumo. As powerful clans such as the Soga, Fujiwara, and Mononobe consolidated control, martial displays, including sumo, became a vehicle for asserting dominance within court and regional politics. Provincial leaders would sponsor local sumo contests to showcase the strength of their followers.

This decentralization led to the development of regional variations in style and emphasis:

• Some areas emphasized grappling and throws, others striking and brute force.
• Local shrines incorporated sumo into their own festivals, blending native tradition with court influence.
• Wrestling competitions among peasant classes likely continued in parallel, preserving older forms not seen at court.

Importantly, sumo in this phase remained fluid and unregulated—often lethal, rarely ritualistic, and highly contingent on local custom.

Militarization and the Path Toward Formalization

Sumo in the Service of the Warrior Class

The Heian period (794–1185) saw the gradual emergence of the bushi (warrior class), whose influence would dominate Japan’s political and martial landscape for centuries. As samurai culture took shape, sumo was repurposed as a method of conditioning and recruitment. Although archery and mounted combat were central to the early bushi, unarmed grappling was considered essential for battlefield survival when weapons were lost or unavailable.

In this context:

• Sumo was integrated into military training regimes under the auspices of regional lords.
• It provided a way to test physical courage, technique, and loyalty in peacetime.
• Retainers often wrestled to gain prestige or promotion within their daimyō’s retinue.

However, this militarized sumo was distinct from courtly or ritual versions. It was pragmatic, rugged, and focused on combat readiness, with fewer ceremonial trappings and more direct transmission of skill from senior to junior warriors.

Monastic Sumo and the Influence of Buddhist Institutions

Buddhism, which gained prominence during the Nara and Heian periods, had a complex relationship with sumo. While some Buddhist sects viewed violent spectacle as a violation of ahimsa (non-violence), many powerful temples maintained martial traditions—including sumo—as part of their economic and defensive infrastructure.

Monasteries such as Enryaku-ji and Kōfuku-ji, both home to warrior-monks (sōhei), supported organized training in unarmed combat. Sumo served not only as a method of discipline but also as entertainment for large temple communities. Records suggest that inter-temple wrestling matches became common by the Kamakura period, often blending Buddhist patronage with lay participation.

These temple-based practices:

• Promoted wrestling as a tool for spiritual and physical balance.
• Supported the preservation of older techniques during times of war and unrest.
• Helped standardize certain rituals, particularly those mimicking temple ceremonies.

Thus, Buddhist influence did not suppress sumo; rather, it shaped a parallel mode of development alongside the warrior path.

Early Codification Attempts and Public Spectacle

Toward the end of the Heian and into the Kamakura period (12th–14th century), efforts to regulate sumo began to take shape. The growing popularity of large public matches in towns and temple markets brought issues of violence, gambling, and crowd control to the fore. Authorities responded with the first attempts at codification, though these were often temporary and varied by region.

Sumo was increasingly performed for mass audiences:

• Urbanization brought spectators from diverse classes, eroding the exclusivity of court or military sumo.
• Traveling sumo troupes (kakutogumi) appeared, often linked to shrine circuits and commercial districts.
• Some forms of sumo began to adopt structured rings, rules for engagement, and non-lethal outcomes.

These early efforts foreshadowed the development of kanjin-zumō—matches organized to raise funds for temple repair—which would dominate sumo in the Edo period.

The Edo Period and the Rise of Structured Sumo

Kanjin-Zumō and Religious Patronage

During the early Edo period (1603–1868), sumo underwent a pivotal transformation from loosely organized spectacle to regulated institution. A key driver of this change was kanjin-zumō—sumo tournaments held to raise funds for temple repairs and public works. These events gained legitimacy through religious endorsement, particularly from powerful Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines, allowing sumo to operate openly under moral and cultural sanction.

Features of kanjin-zumō:

• Tournaments were held under official license, often at prominent temple grounds in Edo (Tokyo), Osaka, and Kyoto.
• Revenues were shared among temples, wrestlers, and organizers, ensuring sustainable operations.
• Ritual elements—ring purification, dohyō-matsuri (ring-blessing ceremony), and offerings to the kami—were standardized.

This framework allowed sumo to establish a semi-permanent presence in urban life. Religious authority gave it credibility, while steady income turned it into a viable livelihood for participants.

Emergence of Professional Stables (Heya)

The establishment of professional training stables (heya) was one of the most decisive developments of the Edo period. These stables functioned as both residences and training centers for wrestlers, presided over by senior ex-wrestlers or licensed instructors. The heya system introduced a clear master-disciple relationship and a rigid hierarchical structure.

Characteristics of Edo-period heya:

• Young boys, often from rural areas, were scouted and brought to urban stables for training.
• Daily life revolved around communal chores, repetitive drills, and adherence to etiquette.
• Wrestlers were ranked in formal banzuke (ranking lists) issued before each tournament.

The headmasters (oyakata) of these stables often came from distinguished lineages and were instrumental in preserving and transmitting technique, conduct, and ceremonial protocols. This era also gave rise to dynastic heya, whose prestige lasted across generations.

Codification of Technique and Ritual

As sumo professionalized, both the technical and ritual aspects became more structured. Techniques were codified into named categories known as kimarite (winning techniques), a system that enabled clearer adjudication during matches. While over 80 kimarite are officially recognized today, the foundational list emerged during the late Edo period, shaped by practical experience and public demand for consistency.

Other forms of standardization:

• The dohyō (ring) was formalized in dimension and construction, with set rituals marking its consecration.
• Uniforms for referees (gyōji) and wrestlers followed distinct designs based on rank.
• Ceremonies like the dohyō-iri (ring-entering ritual) and shikiri (pre-match standoff) were infused with Shinto aesthetics and samurai discipline.

Sumo’s aesthetic began to reflect both martial and performative values—its slow rituals balancing explosive bouts, and its symbolism conveying hierarchy, purity, and masculinity.

Internal Hierarchies, Schools of Thought, and Cultural Resilience

Development of Distinct Regional Styles

Despite increasing standardization, sumo during the Edo period retained strong regional characteristics. The two dominant centers of activity—Edo and Osaka—each developed distinct styles and cultural preferences. Edo sumo, centered around the Tokugawa shogunate, emphasized formality and spectacle, while Osaka sumo maintained a more austere, technique-oriented approach.

Comparative traits:

This duality helped preserve variation in sumo technique and philosophy, and also laid the groundwork for internal rivalries. Eventually, the Edo style would dominate, but many respected Osaka rikishi (wrestlers) influenced the national circuit.

Key Figures and the Stabilization of Lineage

Several legendary figures contributed to the lineage consolidation during this time. Chief among them was Raiden Tameemon (1767–1825), widely regarded as the most dominant sumo wrestler of the Edo era. With an official record of 254 wins and only 10 losses, Raiden set a standard for technical and physical excellence that influenced generations.

Other influential personalities:

• Tanikaze Kajinosuke: Elevated to yokozuna (grand champion) status under the Yoshida family license, helping formalize the ranking.
• Onogawa Kisaburō: Known for elegance and ritual precision, he helped elevate sumo’s cultural appeal.

The Yoshida Tsukasa family, meanwhile, was officially entrusted by the shogunate to confer the title of yokozuna. This act formalized a lineage-based gatekeeping role in the highest tier of sumo, echoing the structure of other traditional Japanese arts such as nō theatre and tea ceremony.

Philosophical and Cultural Continuities

Sumo’s institutionalization was not merely organizational—it also entailed a cultural and philosophical grounding. Drawing from bushidō ethics, Confucian hierarchy, and Shinto ritualism, sumo became a mirror of Edo-period values. Wrestlers were expected to embody humility, loyalty, discipline, and respect for tradition.

Cultural continuities included:

• The emphasis on silence and stillness during shikiri as a form of psychological warfare and inner composure.
• Use of honorific titles and rankings to instill hierarchy and identity.
• The preservation of Shinto ritual in the form of yokozuna ring rituals and dohyō consecration.

These elements helped sumo survive periods of reform, censorship, and shifting political fortunes. Its ties to the religious and social order gave it legitimacy in a society wary of unchecked public entertainment.

From Imperial Symbol to National Sport

Meiji Restoration and Modern Nation-Building

The Meiji Restoration (1868) marked a turning point for sumo, as Japan transitioned from a feudal to a modern state. In the early years of the Meiji era, sumo faced official disfavor due to its perceived association with the old samurai class and its connection to superstition. The government initially sought to distance itself from feudal customs and religious displays, leading to temporary restrictions on public tournaments.

However, sumo was gradually re-integrated into national identity:

• Sumo regained state favor as part of the cultural toolkit for forging a unified Japanese identity.
• Tournaments were held to celebrate imperial events, reinforcing sumo’s symbolic role.
• The modernization of sumo’s administration began, including clearer scheduling, ring construction rules, and audience etiquette.

By the early 20th century, sumo had been reframed as a reflection of Japanese values—discipline, strength, ritual purity—aligned with nationalistic ideologies.

Institutional Expansion and the Japan Sumo Association

In 1925, a critical development occurred with the founding of the Greater Japan Sumo Association, the forerunner to today’s Japan Sumo Association (JSA). This organization centralized control over rankings, tournaments, and disciplinary standards, becoming the governing body for professional sumo.

The JSA introduced a number of institutional reforms:

• Fixed annual tournament schedules (later standardized to six honbasho per year).
• Introduction of radio broadcasting in the 1920s and later television, increasing public access.
• Formal registration of professional stables (heya) and standardization of coaching qualifications.

The JSA also assumed a semi-public role, promoting sumo through diplomacy and exhibitions, especially in colonies and overseas territories during the imperial expansion of the 1930s.

Notably, sumo’s cultural resilience was tested during World War II, when venues were bombed, wrestlers conscripted, and tournaments suspended. Yet the postwar era saw a strong revival, driven by the need for cultural continuity and morale rebuilding.

Postwar Revival and Media Domination

In the aftermath of Japan’s defeat in 1945, sumo reemerged as a powerful symbol of national resilience. Unlike other martial traditions banned or restricted during the U.S. Occupation, sumo was allowed to continue, largely due to its framing as a sport rather than a militarized discipline.

From the 1950s onward:

• Sumo became a staple of NHK television, with daily live coverage during tournaments.
• Popular champions like Taihō, Chiyonofuji, and Kitanoumi captured national attention and inspired new generations.
• The JSA modernized its public relations, launching museums, promotional campaigns, and international exhibition matches.

Sumo increasingly became embedded in Japan’s postwar cultural identity—projecting tradition while adapting to the rhythms of modern life and mass consumption.

International Growth and Challenges of Globalization

Overseas Expansion and Non-Japanese Wrestlers

From the 1970s onward, sumo experienced growing interest abroad. Foreign wrestlers began entering the sport in increasing numbers, first from Hawaii and later from Mongolia, Eastern Europe, and other regions. This trend reshaped the demographics and training cultures within many stables.

Key developments:

• Hawaiian-born Takamiyama became the first foreigner to win a top-division bout (1972), followed by Konishiki, the first non-Japanese ōzeki (1992).
• Mongolian wrestler Asashōryū broke barriers by becoming yokozuna in 2003, followed by Hakuhō, whose dominance became historic.
• New stables began to include bilingual staff and multiethnic support systems.

Foreign wrestlers often brought different athletic backgrounds, such as judo, wrestling, or jiu-jitsu, enriching sumo’s internal competitiveness while raising debates about cultural authenticity and integration.

Amateur Sumo and International Federations

While professional sumo remained Japan-centric, the latter half of the 20th century saw the rise of amateur sumo worldwide. The International Sumo Federation (IFS) was founded in 1992 to oversee global amateur events, introducing sumo into new cultural and competitive contexts.

Features of this development:

• The World Sumo Championships have been held annually since 1992, featuring athletes from over 80 countries.
• Rule modifications (weight classes, attire) were introduced to accommodate international norms and encourage inclusivity.
• Sumo clubs and federations emerged in Europe, the Americas, Oceania, and Africa, often led by former wrestlers or Japanese expatriates.

This amateur expansion helped decouple sumo from its exclusive ritual identity, presenting it as a sport open to diverse genders, body types, and cultural interpretations.

Tradition Versus Modernity in the Digital Age

The 21st century brought new challenges as sumo sought to preserve its traditions while responding to modern expectations and digital transformations.

Key tensions emerged:

• The JSA faced criticism for gender-based exclusion, particularly the ban on women entering the dohyō, prompting public debate and international scrutiny.
• Scandals involving hazing, match-fixing, and harassment damaged sumo’s reputation, prompting internal reforms and media transparency measures.
• The rise of digital media led to new avenues for fan engagement, including live streams, YouTube analyses, and online coaching tutorials.

At the same time, there has been a resurgence of interest in sumo’s spiritual and historical roots:

• Shrine-based ritual sumo has seen renewed interest as a cultural preservation effort.
• Some regional stables have revived Edo-period customs in training, attire, and ring preparation.
• Non-profit initiatives support youth programs combining Shinto education with sumo instruction.

As sumo navigates the 21st century, it stands at a cultural crossroads: balancing its identity as a sacred martial tradition, a professional sport, and a global phenomenon.