History of Hapkido

Roots in a Divided Peninsula

The Legacy of Joseon-Era Martial Traditions

The foundation of Hapkido cannot be understood without acknowledging the martial atmosphere of the late Joseon Dynasty (1392–1897). Despite Confucian ideals minimizing the prestige of martial disciplines in favor of civil scholarship, military training persisted among certain classes, especially border guards and royal bodyguards.

Key martial practices during this era included:

• Subak and Taekkyon, indigenous Korean systems focusing on striking and footwork
• Ssireum, a form of grappling still present in rural communities
• Archery, spear techniques, and swordsmanship within Muye Dobo Tongji, an official military manual published in 1790

Though these arts were not institutionalized in the way modern martial arts are, they laid the groundwork for physical culture and combat awareness that would later resurface in hybridized forms.

Japanese Occupation and the Suppression of Korean Identity

From 1910 to 1945, Korea was under Japanese colonial rule—a period of intense cultural repression. The occupying government banned many expressions of Korean heritage, including martial arts, while simultaneously encouraging Japanese systems such as Kendo, Judo, and Karate.

This era had two paradoxical effects:

• Korean youths were often trained in Japanese arts, particularly through school systems and police academies
• Nationalist groups secretly preserved or adapted indigenous methods, blending them with what they learned from Japanese counterparts

This fusion—part necessity, part resistance—set the stage for a new martial synthesis that would become Hapkido. The Japanese influence, especially Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu, would later play a major role in shaping Hapkido’s core mechanics.

Korean Diaspora and Martial Exchange in Manchuria

Amid Japanese occupation and economic hardship, many Koreans migrated to Manchuria and northeastern China. These regions were hotbeds of military activity, political rebellion, and cultural intersection between Chinese, Japanese, and Korean groups.

This migration exposed Korean fighters to:

• Chinese martial arts (Quanfa, Shuai Jiao)
• Japanese militarist training camps
• Underground Korean resistance networks, where self-defense skills were often vital

Such exposure broadened the combat experience of Koreans outside the peninsula. The skills learned in exile would later return home, integrated into the emerging post-war martial movements.

The Emergence of a Hybrid Art

Choi Yong-Sool and the Daitō-ryū Connection

The most pivotal figure in Hapkido’s formative stage is Choi Yong-Sool (1904–1986), who claimed to have trained in Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu during his extended stay in Japan. After returning to Korea in 1945, Choi began teaching a system that fused Japanese jujutsu principles with Korean sensibilities.

Choi’s method focused on:

• Joint locks, throws, and pressure point control
• Circular motion and redirection of energy
• A philosophy of harmonizing with the opponent rather than direct confrontation

Whether Choi was an official student of Daitō-ryū remains debated, but his system’s resemblance to Japanese aikijujutsu is undeniable. What makes it distinctly Korean is how his students later blended indigenous techniques and philosophy into his teachings.

The Post-Liberation Martial Landscape in Korea

After Korea’s liberation in 1945, there was a surge in martial arts activity. Various schools and kwans began to emerge, each experimenting with different influences—Japanese, Chinese, and native. Choi’s teachings quickly spread through students who began to interpret and evolve the art under different names.

This period was marked by:

• The founding of dojangs (martial art schools) in cities like Daegu and Seoul
• Early naming conventions such as Yu Sool, Yawara, and eventually Hapkido
• Rivalries and collaborations among emerging masters, including Ji Han-Jae, Seo Bok-Seob, and Kim Moo-Hong

The term Hapkido itself—often translated as the way of coordinating energy—would not become official until later, but its conceptual seeds were planted during this early post-colonial experimentation.

Spiritual and Philosophical Undercurrents

Though Hapkido’s physical roots are practical and hybrid, its underlying philosophy was shaped by Korean spiritual and ethical frameworks. Early teachers drew from:

• Taoist and Buddhist notions of non-resistance and balance
• Confucian respect for hierarchy, loyalty, and discipline
• Shamanistic rituals and the belief in internal energy (ki)

This blend fostered a worldview where martial practice was not merely for combat, but for cultivating self-control, awareness, and harmony with natural forces.

Foundations of Structured Instruction

The Naming of Hapkido and Technical Identity

The formal adoption of the term Hapkido marked a significant turning point in the art’s evolution. Although Choi Yong-Sool initially referred to his teachings as Yoo Sool or Yawara, the term Hapkido was first used publicly by Ji Han-Jae in the late 1950s.

The naming signaled more than branding:

• Hap (coordination), Ki (energy), Do (way) created a conceptual link with both Korean and Japanese martial philosophies
• It established a framework that allowed for technical expansion and philosophical development
• It differentiated the art from other emerging Korean systems like Taekwondo, anchoring it in principles of redirection and joint manipulation

The adoption of Hanja (Chinese characters used in Korean) for naming conventions helped reinforce cultural legitimacy and provided a shared identity for practitioners across schools.

Dojangs and the First Generation of Lineages

With rising interest in martial arts during Korea’s post-war recovery, small dojangs (training halls) began appearing in cities like Seoul, Daegu, and Incheon. These early schools often bore the imprint of their founders’ personalities and interpretations of Choi’s core teachings.

Key first-generation figures included:

• Ji Han-Jae, who founded Sung Moo Kwan and later helped establish the Korea Hapkido Association
• Kim Moo-Hong, who emphasized high kicks and striking techniques
• Seo Bok-Seob, Choi’s first official student and important transmitter of original methods

Curricula began to expand, with some instructors incorporating sword work, acrobatics, pressure points, and meditation. While Choi himself remained focused on joint locks and throws, his students diversified the system, forming new branches of what was increasingly referred to as modern Hapkido.

Codification and Curriculum Design

By the early 1960s, many Hapkido schools had begun to formalize:

• Uniform technical progression, such as belt ranking systems, was introduced to mirror Japanese and Korean models
• Core syllabi included joint locks (kwanjol), throws (tangpa), kicks (chagi), and strikes (jireugi)
• Terminology became more standardized, often using Sino-Korean words rooted in classical martial vocabulary

This formalization allowed Hapkido to be recognized as a legitimate martial art within Korea’s growing martial ecosystem, eventually granting it inclusion under national martial federations alongside Taekwondo and Tang Soo Do.

Divergence and Institutional Expansion

Founding of Major Federations

As different interpretations of Hapkido matured, organizational structures emerged to assert authority and legitimacy. These federations sought to unify practitioners under shared standards—but often led to further division.

Notable federations included:

• Korea Hapkido Association (KHA), spearheaded by Ji Han-Jae in 1965
• Korea Hapkido Federation (KHF), established by Myung Jae-Nam in the 1970s
• International Hapkido Federation, which aimed to coordinate global communication but remained domestically focused during its early years

Each federation had unique emphases:

• KHA focused on philosophical depth and technical purity
• KHF promoted cross-training with other arts, particularly Aikido and Taekwondo
• Others emphasized modern applications, self-defense, or police training

The proliferation of organizations mirrored Korea’s broader political and institutional competition during the Cold War, with multiple factions vying for national recognition.

Military and Police Integration

During the 1960s and 70s, Hapkido gained visibility as a practical combat system through its use in military and law enforcement contexts.

Key developments:

• Hapkido was taught to Korean presidential bodyguards and special forces units
• Ji Han-Jae himself was appointed as a martial arts instructor at the Blue House (South Korea’s executive office)
• Police academies and riot control units incorporated Hapkido techniques for subduing suspects without lethal force

This institutionalization reinforced Hapkido’s image as a serious, effective discipline. It also elevated certain schools’ reputations, drawing students who sought legitimacy through connection to elite military units.

Technical Divergence and Philosophical Clashes

As Hapkido spread across Korea, deep philosophical and technical divergences emerged:

• Some lineages emphasized soft flow and circular motion, staying close to Daitō-ryū and internal energy concepts
• Others highlighted athleticism and dynamic kicking, merging with Tang Soo Do and Taekwondo aesthetics
• Disagreements over the role of weapons training, meditation, and self-defense realism became increasingly pronounced

This led to the formation of splinter groups and reformist schools, such as:

• Kuk Sool Won, which integrated Hapkido with broader traditional Korean practices
• Sin Moo Hapkido, founded by Ji Han-Jae after his departure from mainstream federations, focusing on meditation and ki development
• Combat Hapkido, developed later with a focus on modern, pragmatic self-defense

The diversity of expression during this era solidified Hapkido’s identity not as a monolithic art, but as a constellation of related lineages rooted in a shared origin but shaped by different visions.

From Korean Roots to Global Networks

Overseas Expansion through Masters and Migration

The internationalization of Hapkido began in earnest during the 1970s and 1980s, as senior Korean masters emigrated or were invited abroad. Many sought new opportunities, often settling in North America, Europe, and Latin America, where martial arts were gaining popularity through cinema and military exchange programs.

Notable migration paths included:

• Ji Han-Jae’s move to the United States, where he promoted Sin Moo Hapkido
• Kim Jung-Soo and others establishing dojangs in Germany and Italy
• Korean instructors teaching Hapkido on U.S. military bases, sparking local interest

This led to the establishment of first-generation foreign dojangs, often directly affiliated with Korean federations. These schools adapted to local cultures, languages, and training expectations, creating hybrid spaces that blended Korean tradition with Western pedagogy.

International Federations and Standardization Efforts

The spread of Hapkido prompted efforts to unify standards and credentials across borders. Several international federations emerged, either as extensions of Korean organizations or as independent bodies:

These organizations provided:

• Rank recognition and instructor certification
• Curricular templates and testing guidelines
• Annual seminars and international championships

Despite these structures, true standardization remained elusive due to the art’s decentralized history and the personal authority of founding masters.

Media, Cinema, and the Image of Hapkido Abroad

Hapkido’s image in the West was significantly shaped by cinema and television. Korean martial arts gained visibility through films in the 1970s, particularly those starring Angela Mao, who trained in Hapkido and portrayed powerful female fighters in Chinese-Korean co-productions.

Documentaries, martial arts magazines, and later YouTube channels played a key role in:

• Introducing core Hapkido concepts to non-Korean audiences
• Promoting specific schools and lineages
• Creating expectations around “Korean Aikido” or hybridized kick-and-lock systems

Media attention often emphasized the art’s cinematic qualities—high kicks, spinning throws, and energy redirection—at times at the expense of its philosophical depth and complexity.

Navigating Modernity and Fragmentation

Traditions in a Digital Age

The rise of the internet dramatically transformed how Hapkido was taught, practiced, and perceived. Online forums, video tutorials, and virtual seminars enabled practitioners worldwide to access information previously limited to in-person transmission.

Digital platforms allowed:

• Dispersed students to stay connected with their Korean instructors
• Independent teachers to build online followings and monetize knowledge
• Archival footage and historical documents to circulate more freely

However, this digital openness also led to content dilution, inconsistent instruction, and commercialization without lineage accountability.

Many traditionalists expressed concern that:

• Belt rankings were awarded too quickly online
• Philosophical and meditative aspects were neglected
• Cultural authenticity was lost in translation

Splintering, Commercialization, and New Brands

With its open structure, Hapkido became vulnerable to lineage fragmentation. Former students of key masters frequently launched their own organizations, often rebranding the art to suit modern self-defense or fitness markets.

Prominent offshoots and rebrands include:

• Combat Hapkido (John Pellegrini), emphasizing tactical applications over traditional forms
• Hankido, blending Hapkido with circular breathing and Korean philosophy
• KHF USA, a regional chapter asserting independence from older Korean headquarters

Many of these groups distanced themselves from formal Hapkido federations, appealing to audiences less interested in tradition and more focused on efficiency, cross-training, or civilian defense.

While some critics view this as dilution, others see it as adaptation—aligning with broader martial trends toward functionalism, branding, and pluralism.

Revivalist Currents and Return to Origins

Amid modernization, a growing number of practitioners sought to reconnect with Hapkido’s roots—both in technical lineage and philosophical intent.

Revivalist efforts focus on:

• Reexamining Choi Yong-Sool’s original curriculum and oral teachings
• Archiving early documents, photographs, and interviews from the 1950s and 60s
• Emphasizing ki development, meditation, and Taoist influence in training

These movements often take place outside major federations and rely on:

• Private historical research
• Retreat-style dojangs focused on internal practice
• International workshops with senior masters who uphold less-commercialized approaches

In this light, the globalization of Hapkido becomes not just a story of expansion, but of reflection—inviting a balance between preserving heritage and embracing innovation.

Epilogue: A Living Tradition in a Multipolar World
Hapkido today exists as a diverse, living tradition practiced on every continent. Its future lies in the hands of practitioners who must decide what to retain, what to transform, and how to honor a lineage shaped by both resilience and change.